Cramps can be caused by muscle overload due to strenuous activity.  The flow of blood may become restricted causing pain, prolonged spasms, and involuntary contractions within skeletal muscles. Over-excitability, contractility, extensibility, and elasticity of muscles coupled with the loss of water, vitamins, and minerals during exercise can lead to inflammation and imbalance of nerve, ionic, and neurotransmitters. Complementary alternative medicine indicates that stretching and warmups before exercise allows for sufficient blood flow to the muscles before physical exertion. For extra relief, stretch after exercise, and before bed, and upon rising. Stay hydrated and supplement with vitamins, minerals, and anti-inflammatory herbal medicine. Consider taking warm baths post workout, getting regular massages, integrating a regular yoga practice and applying analgesic topical salves (shop CBD Releaf Rollie).

Research suggests taking the following vitamins, minerals, and herbs for cramps.

• Calcium magnesium (300mg) supplement daily, especially on exercise days. 

  • Eat foods rich in these elements such as pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, chives, raspberry, cayenne, and salmon.

• Increase uptake of chlorine and sodium for water balance, blood pressure, and nerve function. 

  • Using a himalayan salt (contains 84 minerals) or sea salt (contains potassium, zinc, & iron)

• Increase uptake of phosphorus, selenium, glutamine, quercetin, potassium and zinc (Ulbricht & Basch 2010)

Combinations of herbs, teas, and tinctures may be used to regulate muscle cramping.

• Balance blood flow and circulation: hawthorn (Crataegus laevigata), black currant (Ribes nigrum), and red clover (Trifolium pratense)

• Cramp relief: Cramp bark (Viburnum opulus), cherry (Prunus spp), and chamomile (Matricaria recutita)

• Sleep and relaxation: Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) and hops (Humulus lupulus)

Things to integrate into your athletic practice 

• Regularly stretch muscles and warm up before excessive workouts 

• Incorporate daily walks to activate muscles

• Hydrate and increase uptake of electrolytes 

• Take daily, high quality vitamin supplement

• At night, soak in an epsom salt bath with added medicinal herbs or essential oils like wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) and valerian (Valeriana officinalis)

• Consider heat pads and ice packs to create blood flow and reduce inflammation

• Consider switching shoes or testing your arches

• Consider kinesiotaping and compression clothing during strenuous exercise

• Consider relaxation techniques such as meditation

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References:

ACHS. (2018). Clinical Correlate: Cramps [online lecture]. Retrieved from  https://achs.instructure.com/courses/1177/pages/clinical-correlate-psoriasis?module_item_id=125151

Marieb, E. & Hoehn, K. (2018). Human Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed). Boston, MA: Pearson. ISBN: 9780134756363

Ulbricht, C. & Basch, E. (2010). Natural standard: Herb & supplement guide. Maryland Heights, MO: Elsevier Mosby. ISBN:978032307295-3

• To reduce damage, pain, and stiffness after strenuous physical activity, it is important to take appropriate measures before aerobic activity including warming up and stretching.

• Applying heat therapy will increase blood flow and muscle flexibility, this can be done by applying a heat pack, taking an herbal bath, checking out a new hot spring, or using the sauna at your local gym.

• Cold therapy will numb the pain and reduce inflammation, this can be done by using an ice pack, cryotherapy, or (some might say) a jump in the lake.

• Introduce rest and relaxation techniques such as yoga, meditation, reading a book, taking a bath, or low-impact forest therapy.

• Whey protein, fish oil, isoflavones, glutamine, l-carnitine, antioxidants, vitamins, and branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) have shown positive results in athletes.

• Ginseng (P. ginseng), eleuthero (E. radix), and green tea extract (GTE) are plant-based therapeutics that have been shown to improve energy and endurance in athletes.

• Bindii (T. terrestris) and cordyceps mushrooms (C. sinensis) have been studied and utilized for post-exercise recovery.

• For possible prevention of delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), which typically occurs 8-24 after a work-out and peaks after 24-48 hours, saffron (C. sativus), turmeric (C. longa), and cinnamon (Cinnamomum ssp.) have shown significant results in reducing inflammation, boosting antioxidants, and circulatory properties.

• Ashwagandha (W. somnifera) is an adaptogenic herb that not has mood-enhancing benefits, but it has been investigated for its ability to reduce the stress associated with athletic performance.

• Taking two capsules of a combination of Boswellia 100 mg, ashwagandha 450 mg, turmeric 50 mg, and zinc complex 50 mg (Articulin-F) three times daily.

To reduce damage, pain, and stiffness after strenuous physical activity, it is important to take appropriate measures before aerobic activity including warming up and stretching.  Applying heat therapy will increase blood flow and muscle flexibility, this can be done by applying a heat pack, taking an herbal bath, checking out a new hot spring, or using the sauna at your local gym. Cold therapy will numb the pain and reduce inflammation, this can be done by using an ice pack, cryotherapy, or (some might say) a jump in the lake. Whey protein, fish oil, isoflavones, glutamine, l-carnitine, antioxidants, vitamins, and branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) have shown positive results in athletes.  Beyond these (and rest and relaxation techniques), re Ginseng (P. ginseng), eleuthero (E. radix), and green tea extract (GTE) are plant-based therapeutics that have been shown to improve energy and endurance in athletes. Bindii (T. terrestris) and cordyceps mushrooms (C. sinensis) have been studied and utilized for post-exercise recovery. For possible prevention of delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), which typically occurs 8-24 after a work-out and peaks after 24-48 hours, saffron (C. sativus), turmeric (C. longa) , and cinnamon (Cinnamomum ssp.) have shown significant results in reducing inflammation, boosting antioxidants, and circulatory properties. Ashwagandha (W. somnifera) is an adaptogenic herb that not has mood-enhancing benefits, but it has been investigated for its ability to reduce the stress associated with athletic performance.

Introduction

During vigorous activity, glucose (from blood and glycogen stored in muscle) is used to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy source for muscle movement.  The metabolized glucose creates an accumulation of lactic acid, which is responsible for the uncomfortable downside to exercise, muscle soreness and fatigue. Strenuous activity is associated with temporary musculoskeletal pain including; joint pain, muscle stiffness, cramps, and fatigue (Marieb & Hoehn, 2018). In addition, Meamarbashi (2017) indicated the inflammatory mediators (thromboxanes, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes) via cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways attribute to pain and swelling post-exercise.  Muscle pain goes away as circulation increases and lactic acid and inflammatory cytokines are removed from the blood. To reduce damage, pain, and stiffness, it is important to take appropriate measures before aerobic activity including warming up and stretching (Marieb & Hoehn, 2018). Other techniques include using heat therapy to increase blood flow and flexibility (heat pack, bath, hot spring, and sauna), cold therapy for numbing pain and reducing inflammation (ice pack and cryotherapy), rest, relaxation techniques, and compression (Hoffman, 2003). 

Beyond basic techniques, over-the-counter drugs such as acetaminophen and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as Tylenol & Ibuprofen, are used to alleviate painful musculoskeletal symptoms.  However, studies show that these drugs have potentially harmful consequences and are responsible for 9,000 American deaths each year. Side effects of NSAIDs include; (gastrointestinal) heartburn, dyspepsia, ulcers, stomatitis, (central nervous system) insomnia, dizziness, tinnitus, weakness, (cardiovascular) edema, palpitations, heart failure, (genitourinary) painful urination, bleeding, cystitis.

Current studies indicate the therapeutic benefits of using herbal medicine and essential oils to work with the body process to alleviate post-exercise soreness, without harmful consequences if used correctly (Hoffman, 2003). Clinical and statistical evidence suggests that musculoskeletal relief from plant-based medicine is attributed to their bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, terpenoids, and alkaloids (Sellami et al., 2018).  Oftentimes alternative medicine practitioners look for anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving herbal medicine for the treatment of delayed-onset muscle soreness caused by excessive muscular contractions (via exercise, weightlifting, and sports). Beyond herbal medicine, whey protein, fish oil, isoflavones, caffeine, l-carnitine, antioxidants, vitamins, and branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) have also shown positive results in athletes (Meamarbashi, 2017). 

Energy and endurance

According to Sellami et al. (2018), human clinical trials suggest ginseng (Panax ginseng) to have adaptogenic, anti-fatigue anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, brain function, immunostimulant, blood homeostasis, stress reduction, and as an endurance performance enhancer. Ginseng has an affinity with the central nervous system, with the ability to improve adrenal, and sexual function. 

Ginseng contains vitamins A, B, C, and E, iron, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus. An alternative to ginseng is eleuthero (Eleutherococci radix) for its strengthening, invigorating, performance-enhancing, and stimulating activities. Maximum beneficial dosage 200mg/day, preferably in the morning. Precautions: taking more than 400mg a day can cause stomach upset or an overactive heartbeat, ginseng should not be taken within hours of sleep, adjust as needed.

Green tea extract (GTE) has been shown to reduce oxidative damage caused by endurance training. The antioxidative and nervous system stimulating effects have been shown to be a healthy and beneficial energy source for athletes (Sellami et al., 2018). 200mg, 1 hour before a workout when extra energy support is needed. Slowly increase dosage as needed, benefits seen as high as 800mg, however, start slow. 

Post-exercise recovery  

Bindii (Tribulus terrestris) is an anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative herb. T. terrestris has been shown to have cardiovascular, prostate, and urinary system benefits. With reported improvements in male libido, muscle growth, and physical fitness. Many Olympians, athletes, and weightlifters commonly use Bindii for performance and recovery (Sellami et al., 2018). Maximum benefit was seen after 5 weeks, at 450mg/day, taking more than 1000mg/day could lead to insomnia and/or fatigue. 

The polysaccharides in cordyceps mushrooms (Cordyceps sinensis) were shown to reduce blood glucose level of hyperglycemic and diabetic mice, regulating the metabolism providing energy, amino acids, and balancing intestinal microbes (Shang et al., 2018).  Cordyceps also has an affinity with the bones, improving bone metabolism and strength (Yu et al., 2018).

Prevention of delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS)

Saffron (Crocus sativus) is a powerful antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive (blocks pain stimulus via sensory neurons). Human studies have shown an effect of reducing DOMS symptoms (Meamarbashi, 2017). Standard dosage, 300mg/day. Maximum dosage of 1.5 grams.

Clinically, turmeric (Curcuma longa) has been shown to reduce muscle soreness in humans and significant research indicates that turmeric has highly anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties (similar to NSAIDs) taken internally or topically (Meamarbashi, 2017). Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) indicates a reduction of swelling and pain and is useful for even chronic musculoskeletal issues including arthritis (Wichtl, 2004). 1.5-3g/day

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum ssp.) has circulatory, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects due to phenolic and flavonoids (Meamarbashi, 2017). Oral consumption of 420mg/day 7 days prior, and 3 days after exercise has been shown for DOMS.

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) has been shown to help the body with physical and emotional stress (and stress resistance), reduce pain and inflammation, regulate metabolism, relax smooth muscle, and enhance performance. In an 8-week trial, 57 male participants were blindly separated into placebo and Ashwagandha groups.  The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of Ashwagandha on muscle strength and recovery; muscle strength and muscle size, serum testosterone levels, and muscle recovery. Results showed an increase in muscle strength, and significantly greater muscle size, reduction of muscle damage, increased testosterone levels, and decreased body fat percentage (Wankhede et al., 2015). Beneficial dosage started at 300mg twice daily.

INGREDIENTS

We infuse *St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) and *yarrow (Achillea millefolium) in cold-pressed sweet almond oil (Oleum amygdalae) and combine it with shea butter (Vitellaria paradoxa), cocoa butter (Theobroma cacao) and fair trade *beeswax (Cera alba). We use *arnica (Arnica montana), cayenne pepper (Capsaicin annuum), and vitamin E (a-tocopherol) for their bioactive therapeutic properties for musculoskeletal pain relief. Vegetable-sourced emulsifying wax and *arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) are used for stability. The blend of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), Tahoe Basin sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), and lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) makes you feel like you are taking a walk through the desert after the rain.

*Organic ingredients. **Made with local sagebrush essential oil, manufactured and distilled by Tahoe Petrichor.

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Sweet almond oil (Oleum amygdalae) - Rosaceae family

We use a cold pressed 100% pure sweet almond oil. Sweet almond oil is known for reducing inflammation and swelling, making it a worthy vehicle for the Releaf Rollie. Sweet almond oil is a quality, light, and fast absorbing oil that helps immediately draw the beneficial herbs through the skin.  Almonds and almond oil have many properties including anti-inflammatory, immunity-boosting, and anti-hepatotoxicity effects. Shown to be beneficial for dry skin conditions such as psoriasis and eczema. It has been used to soothe and rejuvenate the skin, improve complexion, and skin tone (Ahmad, 2010).  According to the USDA National Nutrient Database, sweet almond oil contains vitamin A, B6, K, & E, riboflavin, niacin, thiamin, pantothenic acid, and folate. In addition, sweet almond oils contain fatty acids (monounsaturated oleic, linoleic, and saturated fatty) that help with inflammation, sun damage, and dehydrated skin.

Shea butter (Vitellaria paradoxa)  - Sapotaceae family

We use raw, unrefined shea butter of the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa.  Shea butter is known for its anti-inflammatory skin soothing, and extremely moisturizing butter. In addition to it’s silky and anti-inflammatory qualities, shea butter melts on contact with skin, so the salve rolls on with ease.  According to our supplier and the Journal of Life Sciences (2014), shea butter hosts a number of vitamins for the skin such as vitamin A, E, F, and K, as well as oleic, linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic fatty acids. Shea butter is great for aged, dry, inflamed skin. 

Cocoa butter (Theobroma cacao) - Malvaceae family

We use raw, pure cocoa butter of the cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao). Similar to shea butter, cocoa butter helps provide hydration and healing to dry, irritated skin. Cocoa butter has been shown to improve skin elasticity and collagen production (anti-aging) and skin tone. Cocoa butter is high in antioxidants for the skin due to the polyphenol and flavonoid content. Also bioavailable are stearic acid, palmitic acid, and myristic acid. 

Beeswax (Cera alba) 

We use organic, fair trade, cosmetic grade, premium quality beeswax.  Since 1550 BC Egypt, beeswax has been used to heal bruises, burns, wounds, joint pain, and inflammation. Since many of these uses have been clinically confirmed. More recently, beeswax was shown to have antimicrobial property that acts synergistically in natural products. Beeswax contains hydrocarbons, free fatty acids, di-esters, and exogenous substances and has been shown to possess antibacterial and anti-fungal properties (Fratini, Cilia, Turchi, & Felicioli, 2016).

St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) - Hypericaceae family

Although St. John’s Wort can be found in Lake Tahoe, populations are small, so we use organic St. John’s Wort to infuse our oils with. While St. John’s Wort (SJW) is one of the most extensively studied herbal remedies, mostly for its experienced therapeutic benefits on depression, the well-established topical benefits are not often discussed.  However, one of the earliest mentions of SJW (23–79 A. D.) included using the herb topically as an astringent for burns. SJW has been [studied for and] used to treat wounds, burns, sunburns, abrasions, bruises, scars, ulcers, sciatica, atopic eczema, rheumatism, lumbago, cramps, decubitus, atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, herpes simplex infections, myalgia, pain, and others. The compounds available in SJW have been shown to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antimicrobial activities. In fact, Hypericin is known to be a photo-sensitizer which could have future potential for non-melanoma skin cancer. Nearly 10% of the compounds in SJW are flavonoids (antioxidants). On the other hand, since SJW  is a known photo-sensitizer, photo-toxicity has been experienced, spending extended periods of time in the sun is not advisable. 

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) - Asteraceae family

We use certified organic aerial parts of flowering yarrow (either local wild-harvested or ethically sourced).  Known as the anti-inflammatory “wound healing” herb is a flowering plant that grows abundantly in a variety of terrains, and specifically found along roads and along mountains in the Reno/Tahoe area. When distilled, the essential oils turn blue! One of the few plants that have this ability. The blue color is a result of a chemical constituent called chamazulene, which has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and wound healing capabilities. According to the Natural Medicines Database (2019) professional monograph, yarrow is used as an anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antispasmodic effects for wounds and painful cramps. Kaempferol, luteolin, and apigenin are of main constituents present in Yarrow. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of this herb have been attributed to its flavonoid content. Other bioactive components including amino acids, fatty acids, salicylic acids, succinic acid, ascorbic acid, folic acid, and caffeic acid (Ayoobi et al., 2017).

Arnica (Arnica montana) - Asteraceae family 

We use organic arnica extract.  Researchers Cameron & Chrubasik (2013) updated the systematic review of herbal therapeutics for treating osteoarthritis. Topical arnica showed the most effective remedy, showing similar pain-relieving results to the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), ibuprofen. According to the Journal of Pharmacy Pharmacology (2017), arnica had been reported to have antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, analgesic, and rubefacient activity. The yellow flower, leaves, and stems are used in a variety of topical products in order to mask pain, promote healing, and improve circulation. In addition, arnica is used to treat nerve and muscular cramps, soreness, and pain. Arnica contains a wide range of chemical compounds including sesquiterpene lactones and their short-chain carbonic acid esters, flavonoids, carotenoids, essential oils, diterpenes, arnidiol, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, coumarins, phenolic acids, lignans, and oligosaccharides. The sesquiterpene lactones in arnica have been shown to significantly reduce inflammation as it passes through the skin easily. A study containing willow bark, St. John’s Wort, and comfrey has been shown to improve musculoskeletal healing. According to the European Journal of Sport Science (2014), researchers set to determine whether topical application of arnica was effective in reducing pain, inflammation, and muscle damage in males experiencing delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).  The results showed that arnica was able to reduce pain and inflammation after 3 days after the topical application was administered every 4 hours.

Cayenne pepper (Capsaicin annuum) - Solanaceae family

We use a high-quality hot cayenne pepper from a local vendor.  In a study conducted by Chrubasik, Weiser, & Beime (2010), 281 patients were suffering from chronic soft tissue pain were given either a placebo or a cayenne ointment for three weeks.  Pain had decreased by 49% in patients compared to 23% in the placebo group. In a separate double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled multi-center parallel-group study conducted by the Journal of Pain in 2003, evaluated 320 patients with low back pain.  The results were similar in that 42% pain reduction of the group treated with cayenne ointment compared to the 31% of the placebo group. 

Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) - Asteraceae family

We distill and use our own Great Basin Sagebrush essential oil using wild harvested, sustainably produced local plants. Sagebrush was used by Native Americans for pain therapy and spiritual purposes.  In Switzerland, the Pharmaceuticals journal (2012) explored the therapeutic use of California sagebrush (A. californica) by applying modern science to native uses of sagebrush. The results found that sagebrush may be useful for joint inflammation, osteoarthritis, muscle strains, broken bones, and pain when administered topically. Pain relieving results (up to 3 hours) have been experienced within 20 minutes of application.  Sagebrush contains sesquiterpenes, alkaloids, flavonoids, and other compounds. Sagebrush essential oil contains camphene, thujone, camphor, borneol, eucalyptol, pinene, carene, and more. These monoterpenes have been shown to inhibit pain sensory neurons (TRP channels) of the skin, brain, and lungs. The flavonoids present have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties by inhibiting T cell proliferation and activation.  In the laboratory, basin sagebrush (A. tridentata) has been found to be a strong antibacterial against antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which means sagebrush essential oil makes for stabilizing microbials and keeping bacteria from spoilage (Nagy & Tengerdy, 1967).  Sagebrush increases it’s polyphenol content (ridentin, apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, aesculetin, coumarin, and scopeltin) during stress (from ultraviolet light, temperatures, infections). It has been recognized by authors, such as Pu et al. (2015), that the naturally occurring polyphenols is attributed to the antioxidant activity of the plant.    In 2019, researchers from Heliyon set out to confirm the microbial and analgesic effects of basin sagebrush and evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of the sesquiterpene lactones present. Researchers highlighted adequate studies confirming the benefits of sagebrush for colds, headaches, topical analgesic, arthritis, strains, bruises, and broken bones, as well as show significant anti-inflammatory activity. 

Rosemary (Rosmarius officinalis) - Lamiaceae family

According to Uritu et al. (2018), rosemary has been shown to have antispasmodic, analgesic, and antirheumatic properties, both internally and topically mainly due to high levels of rosmarinic acid, and pinene. Studies confirm the analgesic properties of rosemary, attributed to the constituents; carnosol, cineole, rosmarinic acid, and caffeic acid. Rubefacients increase localized blood flow and circulation to the skin, which offers a relieving topical remedy; rosemary of the Lamiaceae family have been reported to increase localized circulation. Topical application of rosemary for musculoskeletal pain management. A single-blind, placebo-controlled study involving 105 patients undergoing hemodialysis were separated into rosemary and placebo groups, testing the effectiveness of applying the essential oil to the legs 3 times a day.  Results showed significance in the severity of pain after topical application of the essential oils over the placebo, although little difference between the two. Consistent with many trials, rosemary showed to have a rubefacient and anti-inflammatory effect on factors such as prostaglandins while dilating blood vessels and increasing localized blood flow (Keshavarzian & Shahgholian, 2017).  

Lavender - (Lavandula angustifolia) - Lamiaceae family

Lavender was shown to have a pain inhibitory effect similar to morphine, dexamethasone, and indomethacin (Uritu et al., 2018). In addition, Ghelardini et al., (1999) compared EOs of citrus to lavender and determined the constituents linalyl acetate and linalool to have a drastic reduction of pain in vivo of the localized area.  Numerous in vivo studies confirm internal and external analgesic properties of lavender (Rusinowska & Śmigielski, 2014). 

Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)

Vitamin E is a natural antioxidant synthesized by plants that are used commonly in dermatology for its photoprotective (ultraviolet) effects. Researchers Keen & Hassan (2016) evaluated a number of clinical trials in order to show vitamin E can be effective for treating atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, cutaneous ulcers, skin cancer prevention, aging, wound healing (burns, scars), melasma, acne vulgaris, postherpetic neuralgia, and more.  Topically, the antioxidant capacity has shown to synthesize collagen and glycosaminoglycans production on the skin. 

Arrowroot - (Maranta arundinacea) - Marantaceae family

We use organic arrowroot powder. Arrowroot is a natural starch ground from the roots of the M. arundinacea plant. It is a white, odorless, colorless powder (similar to talcum powder) to increase absorption, leaving a soft, silky feel. 

Emulsifying wax 

We use plant-derived emulsifying wax for oil stabilization and integrity. Emulsifying wax improves consistency, and acts as a stabilizer. 

About this product

The releaf rollie contains a combination of raw tree butters, our own medicinal herb infused nut oils, local and therapeutic essential oils. All of the herbs above have been chosen for their synergistic action as a musculoskeletal analgesic remedy. St. John’s Wort and yarrow work on reducing inflammation and relaxing muscles and nerves in the localized area (“ACHS”, 2019). Arnica works to ward off the pain as a localized analgesic (Mills & Bone, 2005). The herbs penetrate into the skin and move through the circulatory system with the assistance of rubefacient herbs such as rosemary, sagebrush, and cayenne pepper (“Stillpoint Aromatics”, 2015).  In addition, cayenne is a potentiating herb that improves the bioavailability of other herbs and beneficial compounds (“ACHS”, 2019). Not only does cayenne strengthen the benefits of other herbs, but cayenne has been shown to desensitize pain stimulus through heat-generating compounds that distract pain sensitivity to the localized area. The action of capsaicin of cayenne acts as a counterirritant, and produces a light pain response, blocking pain receptors to the musculoskeletal system (“ACHS”, 2019; Neustadt, 2008). Salicylates (as in willow bark and meadowsweet), along with capsaicin (cayenne), menthol (peppermint), and camphor (sagebrush), are all considered natural counterirritant topical analgesics, meaning they produce analgesia (pain-relief) by activating and then desensitizing epidermal nociceptors (Barkin, 2013).  Many of these herbs (especially rosemary and sagebrush) have topical antibacterial or antiseptic properties, which helps stabilize the product and reduce the chances of bacterial growth. All of these herbs have beneficial properties for compromised skin, although due to the heat of cayenne pepper, and the compounds in arnica, it is not advisable to use on open wounds (Neustadt, 2008). 

References

ACHS. (2019). St. John’s wort; Yarrow [online lecture]. Retrieved from  https://achs.instructure.com/courses/1177/pages/st-johns-wort?module_item_id=125183

ACHS. (2019). Studies supporting the concept of synergy [online lecture]. Retrieved from https://achs.instructure.com/courses/1389/pages/studies-supporting-the-concept-of-synergy?module_item_id=150047

Adams, J. (2012). The use of California sagebrush (Artemisia californica) liniment to control pain. Pharmaceuticals, 5(10), 1045–1053. DOI:10.3390/ph5101045

Ahmad, Z. (2010). The uses and properties of almond oil. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, (16)1, 10-12. DOI:10.1016/j.ctcp.2009.06.015

Ayoobi, F., Shamsizadeh, A., Fatemi, I., Vakilian, A., Allahtavakoli, M., Hassanshahi, G., & Moghadam-Ahmadi, A. (2017). Bio-effectiveness of the main flavonoids of Achillea millefolium in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders- a review. Iranian journal of basic medical sciences, 20(6), 604–612. DOI:10.22038/IJBMS.2017.8827

Barkin, R. (2013). The Pharmacology of Topical Analgesics. Postgraduate Medicine. 125: 7-18, DOI:10.1080/00325481.2013.1110566911

Cameron, M., & Chrubasik, S. (2013). Topical herbal therapies for treating osteoarthritis. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 5(5), CD010538. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD010538

Chrubasik, S., Weiser, T., & Beime, B. (2010). Effectiveness and safety of topical capsaicin cream in the treatment of chronic soft tissue pain. Phytotherapy Research, 24(12):1877-85. DOI:10.1002/ptr.3335

Filomena, P., Luca, F., Ian, H., Matteo, B., Asma, E. M., Angela, F., … & David, A. (2019). Naturally occurring sesquiterpene lactones and their semi-synthetic derivatives modulate PGE2 levels by decreasing COX2 activity and expression. Heliyon, 5(3), e01366. DOI:10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01366

Fratini, F., Cilia, G., Turchi, B., & Felicioli, A. (2016). Beeswax: A minireview of its antimicrobial activity and its application in medicine. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine, (9)9. 839-843. DOI:10.1016/j.apjtm.2016.07.003.

Frerick, H., Keitel, W., Kuhn, U., Schmidt, S., Bredehorst, A., & Kuhlmann, M. (2003). Topical treatment of chronic low back pain with a capsicum plaster. Journal of Pain, 106(1-2):59-64. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14581111

Ghelardini, C., Galeotti, N., Salvatore, G., & Mazzanti, G. (1999). Local anesthetic Activities of the Essential Oil of Lavandula angustifolia. Planta Medica, 65(8): 700-703. DOI: 10.1055/s-1999-14045

Hammell, D., Zhang, L., Ma, F., Abshire, S., McIlwrath, S., Stinchcomb, A., & Westlund, K. (2016). Transdermal cannabidiol reduces inflammation and pain-related behaviours in a rat model of arthritis. European journal of pain, 20(6), 936–948. DOI:10.1002/ejp.818

Israel, M. (2014). Effects of topical and dietary use of shea butter on animals. American Journal of Life Sciences, 2, 303-307. DOI:10.11648/j.ajls.20140205.18 

Keen, M., & Hassan, I. (2016). Vitamin E in dermatology. Indian dermatology online journal, (4), 311–315. DOI:10.4103/2229-5178.185494

Keshavarzian, S., & Shahgholian, N. (2017). Comparison of the effect of topical application of rosemary and menthol for musculoskeletal pain in hemodialysis patients. Iran Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Research, 22(6). DOI:10.4103/ijnmr.IJNMR_163_16 

Kriplani, P., Guarve, K. & Baghael, U. (2017). Arnica montana L. – a plant of healing: review. Journal of Pharmacy Pharmacology, 69: 925-945. DOI:10.1111/jphp.12724

Mills, S., & Bone, K. (2005). The Essential Guide to Herbal Safety. St. Louis, MO: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN: 9780443071713

Nagy, J., & Tengerdy, R. (1967). Antibacterial action of essential oils of Artemisia as an ecological factor. I. Antibacterial action of the volatile oils of Artemisia tridentata and Artemisia nova on aerobic bacteria. Applied microbiology, 15(4), 819–821. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC547073/

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